FLOURISHES AND PERISHES OF THE MIDDLE AGES | KAIROS GLOBAL | NOVEMBER 2023

Author: Rodney Pereira

Intro: We continue the Church history series with Rodney Pereira taking us through the High and Late Middle Ages.

The Middle Ages, or medieval period, consists of the Early, High, and Late Middle Ages. We will discuss the story of the High and Late Middle Ages in this article. Many characteristics of the Catholic Church developed during this period. The spell till 1300 AD is often termed the ‘High Middle Ages’ (because of the greater progress), and the next half is called the ‘Late Middle Ages’. This period is juxtaposed on both sides by two schisms. It begins after the Great Schism (with the Orthodox Church) and ends on the eve of the Protestant Revolt. Here too, the story of the Church is replete with triumphs and struggles, contraction and expansion, heretics and mystics, sinners and saints. There is also plenty of political drama. Let's take a look at some notable aspects of this period.

The Empire and the Papacy

Along with the frequent state of war in Europe, the interplay of power between the papacy and the empire featured prominently in the political arena. There were times of friction and times of cooperation. From 1048 AD to 1257 AD, there were conflicts with the Holy Roman Empire and also with the Byzantine Empire (also called the Eastern Roman Empire). Many popes confronted the authority of European monarchies, in particular a succession of German kings. The papacy strove for supremacy and independence. This period is well known for the ‘Investiture Controversy,’ the dispute over whether the monarch had the right to appoint bishops and other church officials. Problems like moral laxity, simony (the buying and selling of church offices), and nepotism (granting undue favours, positions, or privileges to relatives) were common among the people in high offices. The popes strove to reform clerical morality and free the Church from lay control. Papal supremacy or ‘Papal Monarchy' could be seen from the mid-11th to the mid-13th centuries. The Pope exercised supreme power over Europe, availing himself of both spiritual and temporal power. A conflict with France led to the papal authority being challenged in the 13th century. From 1257 AD onwards, several political and religious factors led the Pope (who was the bishop of Rome) to reside at Viterbo, Orvieto, and Perugia in Italy. The Pope then moved to Avignon in southern France in 1305 AD. The Avignon period of the papacy lasted till 1378 AD (sometimes called the ‘Avignon captivity’). Seven popes would reside in Avignon during this period. St Catherine of Siena, one of the greatest female saints in the history of the Church, was chiefly instrumental in convincing the Pope to return to Rome. When the papacy finally returned to Rome, the ‘Western Schism’ followed. This was a split within the Western Church from 1378 AD to 1417 AD, and at times, there were two or three claimants to the papacy. The schism came to an end with the Council of Constance (1414–1418 AD).

The Rise of Christendom

Ryan S. Topping writes in The Gift of the Church (Vol. I), ‘Long after Gregory the Great turned Attila the Hun out of Rome, the strong arms of Alfred and Charlemagne established order among Christians, and the preaching of Cyril and Methodius gave a new alphabet to the Slavs —not so long after the monks at Cluny had reformed discipline among the clergy, and during the days that St Francis wandered Italy and Richard the Lionheart fought Saladin in the east—the first glories of this new civilization were rising up along the Seine river, and along the Thames, in the towering Cathedrals, and in their schools. Europe had finally recovered. Under the tutelage of the Church, a novel political and social reality appeared in Europe that would, in time, rival and surpass the legacy of pagan Rome: Christendom.’ In the words of Archbishop Fulton J Sheen, ‘Christendom is economic, political, social life as inspired by Christian principles.’ Christendom was prominent in two parts: the Greek East (known as Eastern Christendom) and the Latin West( known as Western or Latin Christendom). In the west, it was a new reality that emerged out of the wreckage of the Roman Empire. Gregory the Great laid the foundation for Western Christendom by the end of the sixth century. Christendom became a more visible reality when Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne as Emperor on Christmas Day in the year 800 AD. Western Christendom was at its peak of glory from the 11th to the 13th centuries. But it was questioned in the 14th century by monarchs. It was also undermined due to the Great Famine of 1315–1317 AD and the Black Death from 1347–1351 AD, which led to the European population being almost reduced to a third. Crusades were undertaken during these times. From 1096 AD to 1300 AD, there were eight major crusades. These were military expeditions to save the Holy Lands from Muslim control. We may also remember the infamous ‘Inquisition,’ which appeared at the beginning of the thirteenth century. It was a procedure undertaken by civil and ecclesial authorities to identify and stop heresy. Though the real aim was to convert heretics, there were also abuses. The Inquisition was in decline during the late Middle Ages (In 2000, Pope John Paul II made an unprecedented papal apology, asking pardon for the errors of the Church, including abuses during the Inquisition).

Towards the end of this period, in 1492 AD, Christopher Columbus reached the Americas. Soon the  ‘New World’ would become the busy hub of evangelisation.

Monastic Orders and Religious Communities

The role of monks remained supreme throughout the Middle Ages, influencing almost every field. Fr Aloysius Roche writes about the impact of the Benedictine order: ‘Not only has the Benedictine Order given twenty-six popes to the Church and five thousand saints to the world; it brought the greater part of Europe under cultivation. And in a lawless and factious age, it impressed upon the minds of men the important social truth that the arts of peace are more creditable and valuable to man than the arts of war.’ (Splendor of the Saints: How They Dazzle the World and Shape History)

The Cistercians, who lived in community, and the Carthusians, who lived in solitude and silence, were also monastic orders that had enduring influence on Europe. St Bernard of Clairvaux (familiar for the Memorare) was a Cistercian monk and abbot of the abbey of Clairvaux who had a significant influence on European history. Fr Aloysius Roche continues, ‘St Bernard, in fact, was in a sense the dictator of his age—the “Oracle of Europe,” as he has been called. Across the vista of seven centuries, we see him commanding kings, directing popes, compelling nations, and directing the men and things among which he lived. In short, we see him as one of the greatest statesmen of history.’

The Abbey of Cluny was a Benedictine monastery founded in 910 AD, and it became a significant influence throughout the subsequent Middle Ages with its monastic networks. It became a centre of reform following the Benedictine spirituality, and the ‘Cluniac Reform’ spread across Europe through their monasteries (at one time they numbered around 1500). The earliest basilica within the Abbey was the largest church in Christendom until the sixteenth century, and the Abbey housed one of the largest libraries in Christendom. Three abbots of Cluny ascended to the papacy.

The 13th century witnessed the rise of many religious orders of friars. Some prominent ones were the Franciscans, Augustinians, Dominicans, and Carmelites. There were also many other small orders. The ‘third orders’ or ‘confraters’ subsequently formed by many religious orders provided opportunities for lay men and women to partake to some extent in the life and prayers of the community. Convents for women were also common. In the 13th century, a new order called the Beguines started in France, attracting a large number of women into a life of poverty and charity. They were not nuns, but women who lived together in houses or apartments (called ‘beguinages’). Though they had the support of the Church in the beginning, they began to decline by the 14th century.

Universities

Hastings Rashdall, in his book The Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages, remarks that the concept of the university ‘may be said to constitute the great achievement of the Middle Ages in the intellectual sphere.’ The first ever universities were founded at Bologna (1088 AD), Paris (1150 AD), and Oxford (1167 AD). Towards the end of the Middle Ages, there were eighty-one universities in Europe. Academic freedom was a hallmark of the university, which was the ‘first international and secular NGO’ (non-governmental organisation). The universities resulted in the flourishing of intellectual development, spreading scholarship across Europe, leading to the development of many academic disciplines, and laying the foundation for scientific progress and the modern era. It is estimated that by the 13th century, almost half of those in the highest offices of the Church were master's degree holders, thanks to the universities.

Great intellectual development during these times led to several famous works. The most famous theologian of this period was St Thomas Aquinas (1225–74 AD). His monumental work, Summa Theologica, a masterpiece of Christian theology and philosophy, still stands unrivalled. Not only was he endowed with intellectual brilliance, but he also exhibited supreme purity of life, which led to him being called the ‘Angelic Doctor’. He is also the patron of Catholic education. Other famous intellectuals of this era are St Anselm, Duns Scotus, and William of Ockham. William of Ockham  had great influence in academic circles in the subsequent years and also shaped the thoughts of Martin Luther, the leader of the Protestant Revolt. Great strides were also made towards the development of canon law during this period.

Saints and Mystics

This was the age of great saints and mystics. The most famous would be St Francis of Assisi, often called the ‘second Christ’ as the most Christ-like man who ever lived. Few have captured the imagination of the world as he did. Many other saints, like St Bernard of Clairvaux, St Dominic, and St Thomas Becket, lived during this period. St Catherine of Siena (1347–1380 AD) may be the best-known mystic and female saint of the era. She is one of only four women Doctors of the Church, and her book The Dialogue is an amazing work of mysticism. Pope Benedict XVI recounted her influence in a homily in 2010 AD: ‘When the fame of her holiness spread, she became the protagonist of an intense activity of spiritual guidance for people from every walk of life: nobles and politicians, artists and ordinary people, consecrated men and women, and religious, including Pope Gregory XI, who was living at Avignon in that period and whom she energetically and effectively urged to return to Rome.’ Other prominent names of the period include saints like St Clare of Assisi and St Elizabeth of Hungary, and mystics like St Hildegard of Bingen, St Catherine of Genoa, St Gertrude ‘the Great’, Mechtild of Magdeburg, Mechtild of Hackeborn, and Julian of Norwich.

Art, Music, and Architecture

This was a period that immensely contributed to cultural development, especially through ‘Gothic’ art and architecture. The magnificent cathedrals of Chartres, Notre Dame, and Saint-Denis in France, and the stained glass windows in York Minster, are all reminders of this era. Magnificent works were also produced in painting and sculpture. Religious sculpture in Europe had its golden age during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. The Chantries of the period contributed to important developments in church music.

Lessons from the High and Late Middle Ages

a) God's grace is superabundant in difficult times: Paul reminds us that where sin increased, grace abounded all the more. (Romans 5:20) We should remember that if we have a crisis in the Church today, we also have a flourishing of grace. Fr Aloysius Roche observes in Splendor of the Saints: ‘...it is remarkable that the most relaxed and therefore most dangerous periods of the Church’s history have commonly been the most fertile in the production of heroic souls. Time and again when abuses have been rampant, God has raised up those "cohorts of the virtuous" to check the march of the Evil One...As a reparation for the sins of the many, He claims the mortifications and prayers of the generous few. When the pendulum inclines too much to the side of evil, He excites the ardor of His servants, thus employing, as has been said, the tactics by which He subdued the hordes led by the rebel angels.’

b) All of us have a vital role in building the Church: Whether it be on our knees, through our trivial efforts, or through our active involvement, we all have an irreplaceable role in building the Church. St Francis of Assisi heard the voice of the Lord say, ‘Francis, go and rebuild my church, which, as you see, is falling down.’ His response was a life of radical discipleship, which rejuvenated the Church in the late 12th and early 13th centuries. St Catherine of Sienna lived and breathed the longing for the renewal of the Church. She lived in the crisis days of the Avignon papacy and the Western Schism. She was heard praying in agony: ‘Merciful Father, you have always urged me to struggle with you for the salvation of the world and the reform of the Holy Church, with my sweet, loving, grieving desires, with my tears and humble, continual, and faithful prayer— but I have slept in the bed of negligence. This is why so many evils and ruins have befallen your Church.’ Her final prayer on her deathbed was, ‘O Eternal God, accept the sacrifice of my life for the mystical body of Your holy Church.’

c) The necessity of a deep spiritual life for fruitful mission: A powerful and fruitful apostolate can only spring from an intimate relationship with the Lord. Fr Aloysius Roche comments about this period in the same book: ‘The closing centuries of the medieval period stand out as the golden, the heroic, age of Christian activity. They were that because they were intensely spiritual. Creative work that is really worthwhile proceeds from the energy, not of the body and nerves, but of the spirit. The thirteenth century boils over with energy. There was about it, a fiery glow and this fiery glow was fanned into flapping flame by the wind of the spirit. One of the greatest disasters that has overtaken the modern world is just this: It has lost its consciousness of the intimate connection between the soul and the body of man.’

d) Every day matters: Many unfortunate events of this period and subsequent periods were ushered in by the unholy lives and scandalous deeds of people, especially in high offices. These also had long-lasting consequences for the Church. Tragedies struck at unexpected times. We should regard every day we live in holiness and virtue as a victory for God’s kingdom. Every moment lived in sin adversely affects our families, the Church, society, and the world.

An agricultural officer in the Kerala Government Department of Agriculture, Rodney Pereira lives in Trivandrum with his wife Leema Pereira and their son Joshua.