CATHOLICISM AND GOVERNANCE: A History of Cooperation and Challenge | KAIROS GLOBAL | JULY 2024

Author: George Paul

Intro: George Paul takes a look at the history of the Catholic Church and the challenges it faces in three politically ‘difficult’ countries.

The Catholic Church has a rich history of promoting the common good and working in tandem with the state to address societal needs. This collaboration has been shaped by theological principles, social teachings, and practical responses to the changing political and social landscapes. The Church's engagement with the state has varied over centuries, reflecting the complexities of different historical contexts.

In the early centuries, the relationship between the Church and the state was often adversarial, especially under Roman rule. Christians were persecuted for their faith, which was seen as a threat to the imperial cult and social order. However, with the Edict of Milan in 313 AD, Emperor Constantine legalised Christianity, leading to a closer relationship between the Church and the state. The Church began to play a significant role in promoting moral and ethical standards within the empire, focusing on charity and the well-being of the poor and marginalised. During the medieval period, the Catholic Church became a central institution in European society. It worked alongside monarchs and feudal lords to provide stability and governance. Monastic communities were instrumental in preserving knowledge, providing education, and offering medical care. The Church established universities, hospitals, and charitable institutions, which contributed to the common good.

The Renaissance brought a resurgence of classical learning and humanism, leading to tensions between the Church and emerging nation-states. The Protestant Reformation further strained these relationships, as different Christian denominations vied for influence. Despite these challenges, the Catholic Church continued to promote the common good through the Counter-Reformation, which included the establishment of new religious orders like the Jesuits, who focused on education, missionary work, and social justice. In the modern era, the Catholic Church has continued to evolve its approach to working with the state. The social encyclicals of the 19th and 20th centuries, beginning with Pope Leo XIII's Rerum Novarum (1891), addressed the rights and duties of workers, the role of the state in economic affairs, and the importance of social justice. These teachings emphasised the Church's commitment to the common good in the face of industrialisation and political upheaval. The Second Vatican Council highlighted the Church's mission to engage with contemporary social issues, promoting human dignity, peace, and solidarity.

Historically, the Catholic Church has played a significant role in shaping political systems, particularly in predominantly Catholic countries. The Church acknowledges the legitimacy of democratic systems and the need for cooperation between religious institutions and the state to ensure religious liberty and safeguard democracy. However, in countries with other forms of governance, the Church encounters substantial difficulties. Let us explore the challenges encountered by the Church in three countries: China, Iran, and Pakistan.

China

Catholicism has a long and complex history in China, characterised by periods of flourishing growth and severe persecution. The presence of the Catholic Church in China spans several centuries, with significant contributions to Chinese society in education, healthcare, and culture. The relationship between the Catholic Church and the Chinese state has been marked by tension and negotiation, particularly in the modern era.

Christianity entered China during the Tang Dynasty (618-907 AD) with the arrival of Nestorian missionary Alopen in 635 AD. Favourably received by Emperor Taizong, an edict of tolerance was issued, allowing the Nestorians to preach and build churches. This is documented on the Nestorian Stele (781 AD), detailing the establishment of monasteries, churches, and the translation of Christian scriptures. The Nestorian Church contributed significantly to scholarly and cultural advancements, introducing new medical and astronomical knowledge.

The first contact between China and the Catholic Church occurred during the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368) when Franciscan missionaries, including John of Montecorvino, established the first Catholic communities, primarily in Khanbaliq (modern-day Beijing). During the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), Jesuit missionaries arrived in the 16th century, with Matteo Ricci's cultural accommodation strategy fostering Catholicism among the Chinese elite.

The Qing Dynasty (1644-1912) saw growth and challenges for Catholicism. The Jesuits initially succeeded, but the Chinese Rites Controversy led to the banning of Christianity by Emperor Kangxi in 1724, causing persecution and missionary expulsion. Despite this, underground Catholic communities persisted. The 19th century brought renewed missionary efforts post-Treaty of Tientsin (1858) and Treaty of Beijing (1860), leading to a resurgence of Catholic activity, including schools, hospitals, and charitable institutions. The early 20th century was a tumultuous time for Catholicism in China. The fall of the Qing Dynasty in 1912 and the subsequent establishment of the Republic of China created a more open environment for religious activities. Catholic institutions expanded, and the Church played a significant role in education and social services. However, the rise of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949 marked a dramatic shift. The new government viewed the Catholic Church, with its foreign connections and allegiance to the Vatican, as a threat. In the 1950s, the CCP initiated a campaign to eliminate foreign influence, leading to the expulsion of foreign missionaries and the persecution of Chinese Catholics.

In 1957, the Chinese government established the Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association (CPCA), which sought to create a state-controlled Church independent of the Vatican. Many Catholics were forced to join the CPCA or face persecution. This led to a division within the Catholic community, with some remaining loyal to the Vatican and practicing their faith underground. The relationship between the Catholic Church and the Chinese government has remained complex and often strained. In recent decades, there have been efforts to improve relations. A landmark agreement was reached in 2018 between the Vatican and Beijing on the appointment of bishops, a key issue of contention. This provisional agreement allowed for a more collaborative approach, with the Vatican recognising bishops appointed by the Chinese government and vice versa.

Despite these developments, challenges persist. The Chinese government continues to exercise strict control over religious practices, and Catholics loyal to the Vatican often face harassment and persecution. The underground Church remains active, though it operates under constant threat. Catholicism in China today is marked by resilience and adaptability. The Church continues to play a role in social services, particularly in education and healthcare, despite governmental restrictions. The faithful in China navigate a delicate balance between adhering to their religious convictions and complying with state regulations.

Iran

Catholicism in Iran, like in many predominantly Muslim countries, has had a complex and multifaceted history. The presence of the Catholic Church in Iran dates back to ancient times and has faced numerous challenges and periods of growth. Christianity's roots in Iran can be traced back to the early centuries of the Common Era, particularly through the influence of the Assyrian Church of the East. By the 4th century, Christianity had established a significant presence in the Sassanian Empire, which included parts of modern-day Iran. The Nestorian Church, which became prominent after the Church of the East declared independence from the Byzantine Church in 424 AD, played a major role in spreading Christianity across Persia.

Catholicism, as distinct from other branches of Christianity, began to emerge in Iran through the missionary efforts of the Catholic Church during the Middle Ages. The arrival of the Franciscans and Dominicans in the 13th and 14th centuries marked the beginning of a Catholic presence in the region. These missionaries established small communities and engaged in religious and cultural exchanges with local Christians. The Safavid dynasty (1501-1736) brought significant changes to Iran, including the establishment of Twelver Shia Islam as the state religion. This period also saw increased contact with European powers and the arrival of Catholic missionaries. In the 16th century, the Jesuits and other Catholic orders arrived in Iran, seeking to establish missions and convert the local population. Despite the Safavid rulers' focus on promoting Shia Islam, some Shahs, such as Shah Abbas I, were open to foreign influence and allowed Catholic missionaries to operate relatively freely. These missionaries established churches, schools, and hospitals, contributing to the social and cultural life of the country.

During the Qajar dynasty (1789-1925), Catholic missionaries continued their efforts in Iran, often facing challenges from the conservative Shia clergy and the state's restrictions on religious minorities. The Catholic Church focused on serving the existing Christian communities, including the Armenians, Assyrians, and Chaldeans, rather than converting Muslims. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, the Catholic Church's activities in Iran were supported by various European powers, particularly France. This period saw the establishment of several schools and hospitals, which played a crucial role in the modernisation of Iranian society. The Lazarists, the Daughters of Charity, and the Sisters of St Joseph of the Apparition were among the Catholic orders active in Iran, contributing to education and healthcare.

The establishment of the Islamic Republic of Iran in 1979 brought significant changes to the country's religious landscape. The new regime's emphasis on Islamic values and laws posed challenges for religious minorities, including Catholics. The government imposed strict regulations on religious activities, and many foreign missionaries left the country. Despite these challenges, the Catholic Church has continued to maintain a presence in Iran. The community remains small, consisting primarily of Armenian Catholics, Assyrian-Chaldean Catholics, and Latin Rite Catholics. The Archbishop of Tehran, the head of the Chaldean Catholic community, and the local Latin Rite clergy oversee the spiritual needs of these communities. The Catholic Church in Iran operates under tight restrictions, with limited freedom to evangelise or engage in public religious activities. However, it continues to run schools and social service programmes, contributing to the welfare of Iranian society. Interfaith dialogue and efforts to promote mutual understanding between Christians and Muslims remain important aspects of the Church's mission in Iran.

Pakistan

Pakistan is home to a small but vibrant Catholic community. Despite facing numerous challenges and persecution, Pakistani Catholics have maintained their faith and continue to play an important role in the country's social and cultural landscape. The history of Catholicism in Pakistan dates back to the first century, when St Thomas the Apostle is believed to have passed through the Taxila area. The first documented evidence of Christianity in the region, however, is from the 16th century, when Jesuits were invited by the Mughal emperor Akbar to Lahore in 1579. The first church in the country was built in 1597, but it was later closed and demolished by subsequent Mughal emperors.

In the modern era, Catholicism in Pakistan has continued to grow, albeit slowly. The country has two archdioceses, four dioceses, and one apostolic vicariate, with a total of 125 parishes and a population of approximately 1.33 million Catholics, which is about 0.66% of the total population. Pakistani Catholics face significant challenges and persecution. They are often seen as second-class citizens and are subject to discrimination and violence. The country's blasphemy laws, which are often used to target minority religious groups, have led to the imprisonment and even death of many Christians. Shahbaz Bhatti, a devout Catholic and human rights activist who served as the Minister for Minorities Affairs from 2008 to 2011, was assassinated outside his mother's home by members of the Pakistani Taliban for his opposition to Pakistan's blasphemy laws. In March 2016, his cause for beatification was formally opened by the Diocese of Islamabad-Rawalpindi.

Despite these challenges, Pakistani Catholics have shown remarkable resilience and faith. They continue to practice their religion in secret, often in hidden locations, and have developed a strong sense of community and solidarity. Many Pakistani Catholics are also involved in charitable and social work, providing essential services to their communities. Pakistani Catholics also engage in ecumenical cooperation with other Christian denominations, including the Church of Pakistan, which is a union of Anglicans, Methodists, Lutherans, and Presbyterians. This cooperation has led to joint representations to the government and efforts to promote understanding and peace between different religious groups. Catholicism in Pakistan is a testament to the enduring power of faith and the resilience of its adherents.

George Paul is a Communication Designer currently working with the Catholic Health Association of India. An avid student of Theology, Philosophy and History, George is still active in JY, helping youngsters connect with the Catholic intellectual tradition.